5.9%

0.246%

24.6%

22.5%

A submarine power system

A smartphone battery

A grid-scale energy storage system

A drone used for aerial mapping

They produce oxygen as a by-product

They are the only batteries that can be recharged without degradation

They offer high energy density but suffer from polysulfide crossover

They use gold electrodes for high conductivity

Blocks electrons while allowing lithium ions to pass

Converts chemical energy into heat

Stores electrical charge

Acts as the main source of voltage

They are easier to recycle

They have fewer defects in their microstructure

They are naturally more abundant

Their properties can be tuned by adding alloying elements

Desire for higher-temperature operation

Need for lighter materials

Preference for cheaper and denser materials

Need for slower fatigue and corrosion

The conduction and valence bands overlap, cancelling charge carriers

Minority carriers are injected across the junction, causing resistance to drop

The applied field attracts majority carriers away from the junction

The built-in potential is neutralised, and recombination dominates

The density of free electrons

The size of the energy band gap

The number of atomic orbitals per atom

The type of metallic bonding

Ceramics are too dense to be used in rotating components such as turbine blades

Ceramics lose their strength rapidly above 500 °C, whereas alloys retain their strength beyond 1000 °C

Metallic alloys are lighter and cheaper than ceramics, making them more economical for high-temperature applications

Ceramics have excellent strength but are too brittle to withstand the mechanical stresses and vibrations in service

The type and concentration of atoms and defects present

The voltage applied across the material

The direction of the electric field