Application Language->Assembly Language->Machine Language->High-Level Language

Machine Language->Assembly Language->High-Level Language->Application Language

Machine Language->Application Language->High-Level Language->Assembly Language

Application Language->Assembly Language->High-Level Language->Machine Language

support apps

relay messages between links

uses the network

connect nodes

Ethernet, 4G

TCP, UDP

SMTP, HTTP, FTP, DNS

IP

Phone call

Video conference

Instant messaging

Email

both of them

One to Many

One to One

none of them

Fully conected

Tree

Bus

Star

Provides end-to-end communication

Transmits data using physical signals

Sends data frames between two directly connected nodes

Manages application-level protocols

Bluetooth (e.g., headset)

Cable, DSL

WiFi, Ethernet

Large ISP

used to host an application or service

Virtualized hardware systems

Virtually hosts websites, databases, or operating systems

applications that run on a server

A virtual end-to-end communication path

A physical cable connecting two devices

A router configuration setting

A type of network topology