What are the functions of music?

How can apes drumming be described?

What was NOT mentioned in the text?

Why are birds’ sounds considered to be the most difficult in fauna?

Where Did Music Come From? What is music? Musical expression can be divided into two groups: vocal music or «song» which consists of complex, learned vocalizations and instrumental music which consists of structured, communicative sound using parts of the body other than the voice and sometimes additional objects. Although the production of music is considered uniquely human, musical utterances of various degrees of complexity and perfection can be observed in several species in the animal kingdom. Vocalizations of amazingly high complexity and musicality have evolved several times in birds and mammals. Most research has been done on songbirds so far, but also parrots, hummingbirds, whales, seals and possibly other species show vocalizations that can be called musical according to the above definition. Birdsong is commonly regarded as the most complex vocal utterance in the animal kingdom. Some species, such as blackbirds, nightingales and white-rumped shamas, deliver vocal performances of outstanding musical quality that come close to human music in many aspects. Traits of the latter such as an extensive repertoire of melodies, a sense of diatonic intervals, very precise pitch recognition and intonation, ability of transposition, melodic and dynamic variation, imitation, improvisation and composition have been observed in songbirds in various degrees of perfection. Instrumental sound generation is very rare among animals. Simple sounds that are instinctive and serve functions like signalling danger are usually not regarded as music. Our closest cousins, the African great apes (chimpanzees, bonobos and gorillas), make drumming sounds with their hands - sometimes with both arms - on their own chest, the ground, on objects like tree roots and even on other individuals. Chimpanzees have been found readily adapting other surfaces to drumming including hollow walls. Drumming sequences typically last only a short time, between one and twelve seconds. It is currently unknown whether apes can learn rhythms. It is also unknown whether they can create more complex rhythmic patterns than the simple, steady beat typically observed. There are a few other drumming species, including palm cockatoos, woodpeckers and kangaroo rats. However, using both hands to drum seems to be unique to the great apes and humans. But why did music develop? This natural question may be asked in another way: what, if any, adaptive functions does music serve? In other words, what advantage did species with musical skills have that allowed them to have more offspring than those that did not? This is a question that interested Darwin. In fact, he was probably the first to ask it, when he said «As neither the enjoyment nor the capacity for producing musical notes are faculties of the least use to man in reference to his daily habits of life, they must be ranked amongst the most mysterious with which he is endowed». Few stones have been left unturned as to potential functions of music since Darwin posed the question. Many researchers have many different ideas. The following hypotheses about the function of music are among the most common that have been suggested so far. As a null hypothesis, it has been proposed that music has no adaptive function at all. Perhaps it is a mere byproduct of some other ability that we need, such as language. Another often talked about purpose for music, prominent both in the scientific literature and in the popular press, is in mate choice. Data on birdsong and whale song support this hypothesis. Other ideas include that music might have begun with the use of song by mothers to soothe infants, or as a learning tool in the play of young animals.

What is special about music?

Match the phrases with the explanation