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has chromosomes that are clearly visible under the microscope during interphase, when the cell is not dividing.

contains a complex of DNA and proteins called chromatin (nuclear material).

is the place where all cellular DNA is stored in human cells.

is surrounded by a double membrane with nuclear pores.

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its enzymes modify newly formed proteins, e.g. by sulphation, glycosylation, phosphorylation.

is functionally and structurally related to the endoplasmic reticulum.

is the site of digestion of the contents taken up by endocytosis.

is an organelle involved in the formation of transport vesicles.

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their hydrolytic enzymes are responsible for the intracellular digestion of endogenous and exogenous substances.

have the shape of vesicles surrounded by a simple membrane.

exhibit high activity in active phagocytes.

have a high pH in their lumen (10 or more depending on cell type).

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convert the chemical energy of nutrients into energy-rich ATP molecules.

have two membranes, the inner of which is composed of cristae and tubules and contains enzymes of oxidative phosphorylation.

have their own eukaryotic-type DNA arranged in four chromosomes.

contain enzymes of the Krebs cycle and fatty acid beta-oxidation in the inner mitochondrial matrix.

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Actin filaments

have the shape of hollow rigid tubes.

are formed by the polymerization of globular actin into a double helix of F-actin.

form a cortical cytoskeleton that maintains the shape of the cell.

allow contraction of muscle cells and fibers.

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Rough (granular) endoplasmic reticulum

is involved in microscopic basophilic staining of cells.

is highly developed in cells with high proteosynthetic activity.

produces energy for cell movement.

has ribosomes attached to its membrane.

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in somatic cells involves meiotic division resulting in diploid daughter cells.

involves mitosis (division of nucleus and cell) and interphase (cell does not divide).

can be divided into leptotene, zygotene, pachytene, and diplotene.

is regulated by checkpoints that affect the G1-S-G2-M phase sequence.

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The different stages of mitosis have the following characteristics:

in anaphase, the centromeres of the chromosomes are attached to the fibers of the division spindle.

telophase is characterized by the re-establishment of cell nuclei.

DNA duplication occurs in prophase.

during metaphase, the chromosomes are concentrated in the equatorial plane of the cell.

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are spot junctions responsible for the cohesion of adjacent cells.

are abundant, e.g. between keratinocytes in the stratum spinosum.

form a continuous belt (called zonula adhaerens) on the lateral surface of epithelial cells.

allow the conductive connection of the cytoplasm between adjacent cells.

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has a carbohydrate coating called the glycocalyx on its outer surface.

the non-polar (hydrophobic) ends of its molecules are oriented towards the outer and inner surfaces of the membrane.

contains phospholipids and membrane proteins.

is freely permeable to ions, maintaining the same electrical potential inside and outside the cell.

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