As the outcome of consciously racist individual actions and beliefs, a city and its institutions cannot be described as having institutionalized racism if the city or its institutions are operated by non-whites.

Not as the willful creation of racists or racist institutions, but as the cumulative effect of policies, systems and processes that may not have been designed with racism in mind, but which have the effect of disadvantaging certain racial groups.

Not as the willful creation of racists or racist institutions, but as the cumulative effect of policies, systems and processes that have been designed with racism in mind and which have the effect of disadvantaging certain racial groups.

Not as the cumulative effect of policies, systems and processes that may not have been designed with racism in mind, but which have the effect of disadvantaging certain racial groups but as the willful creation of racists or racist institutions.