Severe cases of COVID-19 display overactivation of inflammatory response markers leading to lung damage

Moderate COVID-19 cases display downregulation of interferon proteins preventing lung damage 

Severe cases of COVID-19 display downregulation of interferon proteins leading to lung damage 

Downregulation of interferons is a key response of cells to viral infection 

There have been cases of transmission from bird to humans of bird flu viruses

Some bird flu viruses are extremely pathogenic

There

have been cases of transmission of human to human of bird flu viruses

Some bird flu viruses have low pathogenicity

The H1N1 virus led to a rapid innate and adaptive immune responses, which meant only a portion of the population showed symptoms related to the infection

The degree of genetic similarity between the H1N1 swine flu virus & other influenza strains

The degree of genetic similarity between the H1N1 swine flu virus & other swine flu viruses

The H1N1 virus led to a rapid adaptive immune response, which meant only a portion of the population showed symptoms related to the infection

HA must form a trimer, where each subunit can bind to a sialic acid, before it undergoes a conformational change to promote membrane fusion between the virus and lung cell

HA must form a trimer, where the subunits work together to bind to one sialic acid, before it undergoes a conformational change to create a protein channel through which the viral genetic material can enter the lung cell

HA must form a trimer, where each subunit can bind to a sialic acid, before it undergoes a conformational change to create a protein channel through which the viral genetic material can enter the lung cell

HA must form a trimer, where the subunits work together to bind to one sialic acid, before it undergoes a conformational change to promote membrane fusion between the virus and lung cell

Internal proteins within the virus continue to change due to antigenic drift

Most years the flu virus changes so much that existing immunity against the flu virus won’t provide any immunity against the new versions of the virus

Proteins on the surface of the virus continue to change due to antigenic drift

Each year the flu virus changes so much that existing immunity against the flu virus won’t provide any immunity against the new versions of the virus

It is expensive to source many patients with MDR infections

Phase III clinical trials against MDR organisms must be superiority trials

The drug must be effective against both MDR organisms and non-MDR organisms

Phase III trials of MDR drugs can only be performed on model organisms not humans 

Chloramphenicol

Cycloserine

Linezolid

Clindamycin

Because it is easier to design a non-inferiority trial

Because they do not really have clear advantages over current treatments

Because there are not enough drug-resistant infections yet to prove superiority

Because there already are too many drug-resistant infections to show superiority

The altered expression of intrinsic genes leads to the production of a thicker cell wall that reduces the effectiveness of vancomycin

The altered expression of intrinsic genes leads to the production of peptidoglycan with D-Ala-D-Lac terminal residues that reduce the effectiveness of vancomycin

The acquisition of horizontally acquired resistance genes leads to a reduction in overall peptidoglycan production, which reduces the effectiveness of vancomycin

The acquisition of horizontally acquired resistance genes leads to the production of peptidoglycan with D-Ala-D-Lac terminal residues that are insensitive to vancomycin