Sulfonylureas; bind ATP-dependent K⁺ channels on β-cells for insulin secretion.

Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors (e.g., Acarbose); delay carbohydrate digestion in the intestine.

GLP-1 agonists (e.g., Semaglutide); delay gastric emptying and inhibit glucagon.

SGLT-2 inhibitors (e.g., Empagliflozin); promote urinary glucose excretion for CV benefits.

Biguanides (e.g., Metformin); first-line therapy, also used off-label for PCOS and weight reduction.