Both pilots. While the pilot monitoring was in charge of active communication, also the pilot flying had to listen for instructions via radio.

The captain, because it was his responsibility as a commander to make sure his copilot monitored the frequency.

The copilot, because he failed to closely monitor radio traffic, which was his obligation as the pilot monitoring.

The ground controller, because he issued his clearance at a time where none of the plots were actively listening.

is used only if verbal clarity is not possible.

is cross-culturally understood.

can serve as a substitute for oral speech.

is always clearly interpretable.

a tendency to avoid making difficult decisions.

an excessively high opinion of him/herself.

a resentment of being told what to do.

an urge to do something impulsively.

The commander acts in an autocratic manner and the co-pilot acts as a good follower.

• The co-pilot acts as a good follower but the cockpit gradient is too steep.

The commander is an autocratic leader and the co-pilot is a bad follower.

The CRM is good, the commander has the final say on all decisions.

Disengage autopilot and fly manually.

Reading emergency checklists.

Practice entering data into the autopilot.

Actively monitor and follow flight progression and radio communication.

Cognitive stress

Physiological stress.

Fatigue-based stress

Imaginary stress.

2, 3, 4 and 5.

1, 3, 4 and 5.

1, 2, 3 and 4.

1, 2, 3 and 5.

Greater efforts are needed to ensure that communication will take place.

The crew will pay most attention to primary tasks.

Routine tasks carried out in the background will be properly and openly discussed.

Situations displayed on the screens will be fully discussed.

of the social and professional expectations of being flight crew.

They are attempting to apply the principles of persuasion to the rest of the crew.

they are attempting to promote non-conformity in the group.

of the risky effect of group decision-making.

Automatic behaviour is least likely to result in complacency.

Complacency is a dangerous attitude because it leads to a loss of awareness of danger.

Complacency is most likely to occur when flight crew have periods of high workload.

Complacency is most likely to occur when practising an activity in which a person has a low level of skill.