It

directly inhibits insulin receptor substrate 1 (IRS1) to reduce glucose

transport in states of obesity.

It

is an anti-inflammatory cytokine secreted exclusively by M1 macrophages to downregulate

skeletal muscle GLUT4.

It

binds to AdipoR, recruiting AMPK, promoting GLUT4 translocation and stimulating

beta-oxidation via ACC phosphorylation/inhibition.

It

binds to TNF receptors, activating JNK and suppressing downstream PI3K/AKT

signalling to prevent lipid accumulation.

Lipotoxicity

leads to increased production of short-chain fatty acids, the ceramides and

diacylglycerols (DAGs) because of complete oxidation of fatty acids, which in

turn interfere with insulin signalling.

Lipotoxicity

increases the concentration of diacylglycerides (DAGs) in myocytes, DAGs

inhibit insulin signalling by directly blocking the phosphorylation of Akt.

Lipotoxicity

increases the concentration of ceramides in myocytes, ceramides inhibit insulin

signalling by directly blocking the phosphorylation of IRS-1.

Lipotoxicity

leads to increased levels of long-chain fatty acids, the ceramides and

diacylglycerols (DAGs) because of partial oxidation of fatty acids, which in

turn interfere with insulin signalling.

Insulin

binds receptor →

activation of IRS1 →

activation of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) → activation of Protein Kinase B (AKT) → translocation of GLUT4 vesicle channels to the

plasma membrane.

Insulin

binds receptor →

APPL1 recruitment →

ACC activation →

passive diffusion of glucose.

Insulin

binds receptor →

direct passive entry of glucose through lipid bilayers.

It

primarily synthesises insulin, regulates core body temperature, and directly

metabolises systemic glycogen.

It

is composed of exactly 50 species of bacteria that weigh approximately 10 kg in

a healthy adult.

It

has no role in digestion but is solely responsible for secreting systemic

inflammatory cytokines.

NAFLD

is the most common cause of liver disease, affecting 1/3 of the adult

population and approximately 12% of children worldwide.

NAFLD

is rare, affecting only 1% of adults and 0.5% of children worldwide.

NAFLD

is highly prevalent in developing countries but affects less than 5% of

populations in Western countries.

NAFLD

affects 90% of the adult population and 50% of children globally.

Liver:

Increases hepatic glucose production; Skeletal Muscle: Inhibits amino acid

uptake; Adipose Tissue: Stimulates lipolysis.

Liver:

Decreases hepatic glucose production; Skeletal Muscle: Decreases protein synthesis;

Adipose Tissue: Promotes lipolysis.

Liver:

Promotes gluconeogenesis; Skeletal Muscle: Inhibits glucose uptake via GLUT4;

Adipose Tissue: Stimulates free fatty acid release.