fear of causing low blood pressure in elderly patients and increasing the risk of falls and fractures

combination therapy, appropriately taken, is ineffective

drug induced side effects

lack of regular blood pressure monitoring

acetylcholine

gamma aminobutyric acid

excitatory amino acids

asparate

When the pressure difference between each end of the blood vessel is doubled

Doubling the length of vessel

Doubling blood viscosity

Halving the radius of the vessel

Release acetylcholine that acts on nicotinic receptors

Release noradrenaline that acts on nicotinic receptors

Release noradrenaline that acts on β₁-adrenoreceptors

Release acetylcholine that acts on muscarinic receptors

Parasympathetic nerves innervate most blood vessels in the body and mediate vasodilatation.

The pre-ganglionic vagal neurones arise in the rostral ventrolateral medulla.

The major neurotransmitter in parasympathetic ganglia is the excitatory amino acid glutamate.

Relative to the sympathetic nervous system, the pre-ganglionic neurones of parasympathetic nerves are long and the post-ganglionic nerves are short.

Heart rate = cardiac output / stroke volume

Cardiac output = stroke volume / heart rate

Cardiac output = heart rate / stroke volume

Stroke volume = cardiac output X heart rate

Angiotensin II.

Aldosterone

Atrial natriuretic peptide.

Vasopressin 

Aneurysm rupture

Arteriovenous malformation

Trauma

Hypertension

Cardiac output is maintained due to reduced salt and water reabsorption by the kidney.

The pressure natriuresis-diuresis relationship is shifted leftward.

Total peripheral resistance increases due to increased circulating levels of atrial natriuretic peptide

Kidney blood flow falls due to autoregulation of blood flow