Beta oxidation

Carbohydrate catabolism

Oxidation-reduction

Substrate-level phosphorylation

FMT stimulates host macrophages to phagocytose C. difficile spores more efficiently, preventing recurrence.

FMT introduces donor antibodies that directly neutralize C. difficile toxins in the recipient’s intestine.

FMT restores microbial diversity that outcompetes C. difficile for nutrients and niches, re-establishes metabolic by-products that inhibit pathogen growth, and strengthens colonization resistance.

FMT supplies bacteriophages that specifically lyse C. difficile, acting similarly to targeted antimicrobial therapy.

Thymine bases on one strand of DNA, next to each other, are covalently linked together to form a thymine dimer.

Adenine and thymine bases on opposing DNA strands are linked together by hydrogen bonds.

Thymine bases on the opposing DNA strands are covalently linked together to form a thymine dimer.

Adenine and thymine bases on opposing DNA strands are covalently linked together to form an AT dimer.

Forming a biofilm that masks surface antigens and blocks phagocyte access

Producing urease to neutralize stomach acid, allowing survival of H. pylori

Releasing leukocidins that directly kill neutrophils and macrophages

Allowing opsonization but blocking complement-mediated lysis

H. pylori secretes large amounts of acid that erode mucosa, and PPIs fail because the bacterium becomes dormant at high pH

H. pylori causes ulcers by blocking mucus secretion, and PPIs fail because they stimulate bacterial motility.

H. pylori survives gastric acid with urease, disrupts epithelial signaling through CagA and VacA toxins, and induces chronic inflammation; PPIs alone fail because the infection persists unless the bacterium is eradicated with antibiotics.

H. pylori integrates into host DNA, activating oncogenes, and PPIs fail because they inactivate gastric macrophages.

Staphylococcus and Escherichia coli

Halobacterium and Staphylococcus

Cyanobacteria and Green algae

Halobacterium and Sulfolobus

Contains pseudomurein instead of peptidoglycan and lives in high-salt environments

Has cellulose in its cell wall and performs photosynthesis

Contains peptidoglycan and stains purple in a Gram stain

Is a motile protozoan with cilia