A 36-year-old woman comes to

the doctor with a usual problem. More and more often, she suffers from attacks

of tachycardia (high heart rate), accompanied by palpitations (often

irregular), and also by increased sweating and flushing, which her colleagues

at work have noticed. The doctor measures her blood pressure and it was quite

high. A blood test then reveals elevated levels of metanephrines (metabolites

of catecholamines). A subsequent CT scan confirms tumour in her right adrenal

gland. This is most likely a pheochromocytoma, a tumour of the chromaffin cells

(pheochromocytes) of the adrenal medulla from which catecholamines are released

into the body in a paroxysmal fashion. What is the origin of adrenal medulla

and how would you classify its tissue?

A 47-year-old patient is admitted to the

intensive care unit due to severe infection or sepsis. A number of parameters

are used to monitor the development of inflammation and the patient's general

condition. One of them is procalcitonin. This protein is physiologically

produced by thyroid cells as a precursor to the hormone calcitonin. However,

especially in generalized bacterial infections, other cells, mainly

neuroendocrine cells of the lung and intestine, start to produce it. The

concentration of this protein then rises sharply in the plasma. What are the

name of thyroid cells that produce this protein?

A 37-year-old woman comes to the physician for evaluation of

unintentional weight gain (5.5 kg in 2 weeks) and irregular menstrual cycles

over the past 3 months.

She does not take any medications. Her blood pressure is 155/85 mmHg. Elevated serum

cortisol level is found. Which adrenal layer is likely to contain an excessive

amount of this hormone?

A 52-year-old woman

had a total thyroidectomy. Unfortunately, pathologic analysis reveals that all

the parathyroid glands were removed. Which parameter is most likely to be the

most affected by the removal of the parathyroid glands?

A boy is diagnosed

with a rare congenital Kallmann syndrome. This syndrome is characterized by anosmia

(absence of smell) and reduced or zero production of the gonadotropin-releasing

hormone GnRH, which leads to reduced production of the follicle-stimulating

hormone FSH and luteinizing hormone LH, and subsequently to delayed or no

puberty (pubertas tarda). Which cells are the normal source of FSH and LH?

A medical student has an irregular sleeping

pattern after a difficult exam period and usually sleeps only briefly and

poorly. He decides to adjust his daily routine and starts taking melatonin.

Melatonin, sometimes called the sleep hormone, is a hormone produced in the

pineal gland. Its production is circadian with a peak at night. The main

stimulus for melatonin degradation is light and especially its blue component.

The increase in its level is associated with the urge to sleep, helping the

body to induce a proper circadian rhythm. It is also an important antioxidant.

What are the pineal cells that produce this hormone called?

A 52-year-old female patient

develops symptoms of hypocalcemia (low calcium levels) such as cramps or

paresthesias (sensory disturbances – tingling) very soon after surgery where

her thyroid gland was removed. In addition to low calcium levels, elevated

blood phosphate levels dominate in the laboratory tests. This is a typical

picture of acutely developing hypoparathyroidism resulting from removal of all

parathyroid glands during a previous operation. Their removal leads to

parathyroid hormone deficiency. How do we call the parathyroid cells that

produce this hormone?

Insulinoma is a tumor of the pancreas that overproduces insulin. Which

cells will produce insulin in this tumor?

A medical student has an irregular sleeping

pattern after a difficult exam period and usually sleeps only briefly and

poorly. He decides to adjust his daily routine and starts taking melatonin.

Melatonin, sometimes called the sleep hormone, is a hormone produced in the

pineal gland. Its production is circadian with a peak at night. The main

stimulus for melatonin degradation is light and especially its blue component.

The increase in its level is associated with the urge to sleep, helping the

body to induce a proper circadian rhythm. It is also an important antioxidant.

What are the pineal cells that produce this hormone called?

In a 4-year-old boy, thanks to the very good

work of his paediatrician, nanism, a small growth caused by insufficient

production of growth hormone, was detected. The boy has not grown enough, and

his face is small. The blood also shows a low level of growth hormone. The

cause may be not only pituitary disorders, but also insufficient or excessive

secretion of related liberins and statins in the hypothalamus. How do liberins

and statins get from the hypothalamus to the pituitary?