tidal volume

expiratory reserve volume

inspiratory reserve volume

vital capacity

Formation of scar tissue from fibrosis in the lungs.

Bronchodilation

Increased perfusion of alveoli

Decreased surface tension in the alveoli.

Some of the internal stimuli which can trigger digestive reflexes are pH, stretch/pressure, and osmolarity.

Short reflexes act locally within the enteric nervous system/GI tract.

The effectors of the digestive system are smooth muscle and glands.

Communication with the CNS is required to regulate GI activity.

cerebral cortex

brain stem

cerebellum

cranial nerves