They replace the sale of material goods with the sale of intangible services.

They transform residual waste into secondary inputs for industrial production.

They reduce the need for new product production by increasing the utilization rate of products that would otherwise remain underused.

They ensure that products are never discarded and therefore completely remove waste generation.

Resource recovery models - by encouraging joint use of underutilized products

Sharing models - by recycling waste into secondary raw materials

Product-as-a-service models - by replacing conventional raw materials with renewable ones

Product life-extension models - by slowing material throughput; circular supply models - by substituting virgin inputs with bio-based, renewable, or recovered materials

a product-as-a-service model

a circular supply model

a sharing model

a resource recovery model

They reduce demand for new products primarily by encouraging multiple users to access the same product.

They increase the speed at which materials circulate through the economy in order to improve efficiency.

They substitute services for products in order to avoid material extraction altogether.

They slow the flow of materials through the economy by allowing existing products to remain in use for longer.

Circular supply models extend product lifespan, whereas resource recovery models reduce underutilization through shared access.

Circular supply models replace virgin raw materials with bio-based, renewable, or recovered inputs, whereas resource recovery models turn waste and residual materials into secondary raw materials.

Circular supply models focus on maximizing product utilization, while resource recovery models focus on replacing ownership with access.

Circular supply models eliminate waste generation entirely, whereas resource recovery models eliminate the need for consumption.