Before becoming a standalone discipline, through which areas was the study of (usually literary) translation primarily conducted?

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A university department designs a new curriculum that includes courses on translation history, a module on using SDL Trados (a CAT tool), and a seminar on the ethics of the translator's role in society. Which areas of the expanded Applied Branch of translation studies are they covering?

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Holmes identifies several "Partial" theoretical studies that are restricted according to specific parameters. Which of the following are recognized parameters?

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Several cultures conceptualize translation as “turning over”, “changing form”, or “speaking after”. What does this diversity primarily suggest?

A research team uses eye-tracking technology to observe how professional translators handle difficult metaphors while they work. They then compare these results with the final published text. This project integrates which two branches of Holmes’s map?

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While translation studies is often called an "interdiscipline," Daniel Gile expresses concern that:

In James S. Holmes’s framework, what are the two primary objectives of "pure" areas of research?

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According to Willard McCarty’s description of an "interdiscipline" (cited in the text), what are its defining characteristics?

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How has technology revolutionized research and practice in translation studies according to the text?

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Which specific approach to language learning dominated from the late 18th century to the 1960s, treating translation as a tool for testing grammatical rules?